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The site of Bloodmoor Hill is located close to Carlton Colville, Lowestoft, Suffolk and is centred on NGR TM 5208 9002. The site appears to have seen two principal periods of occupation. The first phase, dating to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, consists of a field system defined by ditches with trackways running through it. The second phase dates to the 6th and 7th centuries AD and consists of dense Saxon settlement including at least twenty sunken floored buildings (SFB), at least eight post-built ‘halls’, numerous pits, a small cemetery and evidence for industrial activity.
The site lies on sand and is consequently vulnerable to erosion once exposed. At present the features are very well preserved with only limited truncation resulting from ploughing, probably during the medieval period.
Bone preservation appears to vary across the site according to differences in the soil conditions, but is generally poor. The preservation of other artefacts (pottery, metalwork, industrial debris) appears to be good and the cemetery has produced a range of objects including girdle hangers, box fittings, shears, knives and a scramsax.
The site has been known to be associated with Saxon occupation since the 18th century when artefacts were recovered from a cemetery to the west of the present site. As a result of this, a programme of evaluative documentary research, survey and trial excavation was carried out by the Suffolk County Field Unit in 1995 in advance of proposed development work.
The evaluation defined a zone of Saxon settlement at the north end of the study area, apparently tailing off to the west, south and east. The main criterion for site definition was a deposit identified by the excavator as a ‘dark earth’. Very little of this deposit was investigated, the presumption being that features lying below it would be well preserved. Few features were excavated or identified beyond ditches, pits and postholes. When the proposals to build on the site were approved a contract to excavate the site was awarded to the Cambridge Archaeological Unit.
The excavation of the site began in January 1998. It was rapidly apparent that the identification of the ‘dark earth’ deposit in the strict sense of the term was mistaken and that the dark deposits were the remains of middens, an industrial dumping zone and areas of dense features, the spreads of dark earth being relatively limited in their extent across the site. The limited scope of the evaluative excavation meant that no specific Saxon features had been identified and the density of settlement had not been appreciated. Neither had the extent of Roman remains been taken into account. The apparently limited extent of the Saxon settlement proved to be an illusion and in April 1998 a further area was stripped immediately to the east of the main area of excavation. Ten additional sunken floored buildings were identified as a result of this work.
Funding was secured from English Heritage to allow for further evaluative work and this allowed the definition of the real edge of the settlement, some 75m east of that determined during the original evaluation of the site.
The work demonstrated that the site was of considerably greater significance than had been appreciated on the basis of the evaluation. As a result considerable further work was required, beyond that allowed for by the developer on the basis of the original investigation. This project design is intended to set out the case for this work.
Excavated early/middle Saxon settlement sites are very rare nationally and few have been investigated on a large scale since the mid 1970's. Only a limited number of these have received full publication. This is especially true for the early medieval period in East Anglia where, in contrast, cemeteries are well represented. West Stow and Mucking, both excavated some twenty to thirty years ago, have become type sites for the region and for the whole country, although the extent to which they are typical is questionable.
Settlements of the period vary greatly in size and extent, with some showing relatively limited evidence for spatial organisation and planning while others appear to be more complex. The excavations at West Heslerton, for example, have shown a high degree of spatial variation in the layout of the settlement, far removed from a shifting pattern of loosely clustered farmsteads seen elsewhere. It seems that we may have misunderstood and underestimated the complexity, sophistication and variety of Saxon settlements and that our perception of them as unbounded and disorganised is erroneous. From this perspective the opportunity to excavate a near-complete settlement such as Carlton Colville must be seen as both rare and highly significant.
There is considerable evidence for settlement shift and population expansion in Norfolk and Suffolk during the 7th century AD (Wade 1997:48), although few settlements spanning these centuries have been excavated. West Stow apparently dates to between the 5th and mid-7th century (West 1985) while Brandon dates to the 7th –9th centuries and is thus slightly later than Carlton Colville (Carr et al. 1988). A closer parallel may be the site at Redcastle Furze near Thetford which seems also to span the 6th and 7th centuries (Andrews 1995).
The northern boundary of the Carlton Colville settlement appears to be defined by a series of midden heaps, bounded by the Roman enclosure system. There are at least three grubenhäuser to the north of the trackway on the western side and it is quite possible that the middens are contained within a settlement that continues northwards under the recently built houses. The western limit of the site is still undefined but should be ascertainable by further investigation in the future. To the south the early medieval features end without any apparent boundary. The eastern side of the settlement has been defined by the additional evaluative trenching. The settlement features cease abruptly and appear, as on the northern side of the site, to be contained within part of the Roman field system.
Initial indications suggest that the site spans the 6th to 8th centuries AD. Although this was a period of considerable fluidity, the site appears to demonstrate a high degree of stability and thus offers the opportunity to examine the development of a single community during a period of social and economic change.
Amongst the priorities identified for the site, the recovery of a series of environmental samples is considered as highly significant. The site offers the opportunity to investigate changes in crop husbandry practices which, it has been suggested, were in the process of rapid change at this time (Hey 1998). It seems unlikely that the potential for the recovery of plant remains will be equalled by the recovery of animal bone, which, as noted above, is poorly preserved.
Initial indications suggest that the settlement was occupied from the 6th century AD into the early 8th century AD. The pottery assemblage consists primarily of hand-made plain sherds, with a small proportion bearing stamped and incised decoration. The decorated pottery appears to be limited to the northern (the midden zone) and eastern sides of the site. The trial-trenches on the eastern side of the site have both defined grubenhäuser with stamped sherds on the surface of their fills. This might indicate that the earliest phase of occupation was located on the north-eastern side of the site, although further work is required to substantiate this.
No Ipswich ware has yet been recovered from the site, and this may be indicate that occupation had ceased or was in rapid decline by the early 8th century, recent research suggesting that Ipswich ware did not begin to reach sites other than Ipswich until 710 or 720AD (Blinkhorn, pers. comm.). Other research suggests an even later date (Geake 1997:89-90). This picture of a settlement in decline in the late 7th and early 8th centuries may be contradicted by a coin of this date from an as-yet unexcavated grubenhäus. Further excavation and analysis of the finds is required before a judgement can be made on the matter.
The relationships between the small cemetery within the area of excavation, the settlement and an earlier pagan inhumation cemetery to the south-west of the settlement are clearly significant and will form a significant area of research (Newman 1998). The pagan cemetery dated to the late 5th to early 6th centuries AD but included at least one rich 7th century barrow burial. The cemetery within the site included five furnished graves which still require detailed analysis. It is possible that it represents a ‘conversion period’ cemetery as defined by Geake (1997). The cemetery is comparable with the two (possibly three) excavated at Stratton near Biggleswade which were also small and aligned on Roman field boundaries (Shotliff 1997). Given this parallel, the possibility that further burials lie on the eastern side of the Carlton Colville site must be considered a strong possibility.
The small size of the cemetery (around fifteen graves) may indicate either that it was used for only a short time or that access to it was restricted to one group within the settlement. The cemetery was overlain and truncated by an area of metal-working, perhaps indicating a change in the nature of the treatment of the dead or of religious beliefs.
There is a great range and variation in the grubenhäuser excavated to date, both in size and structural type and it is clear that there is no standard Carlton Colville ‘type’. This is paralleled by the evidence from other excavations in the region (West Stow and Mucking) where a number of different types of construction were also observed. In contrast, other parts of England show considerably greater uniformity, particularly amongst the two-post structures. At the time of writing buildings incorporating one, two and six posts have been identified as well as buildings which were not apparently based on a post-built design. One of these (F134) has clear evidence of a plank-lined slot in the base of the sunken floor and plank-lined sides. Another has posts around the inner base (F5). Of the nine grubenhäuser excavated to date, five are of standard two-post design, two have six posts, one has one post and one has no posts. The latter example may have had posts set on post-pads, a feature often seen on European sites. One of the buildings appeared to have been repaired and to have had additional posts added. The pits are generally rectangular and are aligned east to west. The sizes range from c. 3m x 4m up to c. 5.4m x 4.8m. One of the two-post structures is square, measuring 4.6m x 4.6m.
The lifespan of the grubenhäuser
There is some evidence to indicate the lifespan of the buildings and this offers the opportunity to pose a number of detailed questions about the building traditions which they represent.
As noted above there is evidence of repairs and/or alterations, particularly to grubenhäus F134. This example had a double gable-post at the eastern end, possibly indicating replacement as part of a major repair to the building.
Regarding the material recovered from the pits, this seems to offer some possibility of a close phasing of the buildings, given that they seem to have been characterised by short filling sequences (discussed further below). Inferences drawn form such data must be treated with care however, as temporal change is only one of the possible variables affecting pottery forms and fabrics.
Other questions concern the possibility of changes in structural techniques over time. At Mucking it was suggested that there was a trend towards larger buildings in the later (7th century) phases of the settlement, an observation which has parallels elsewhere (Hamerow 1993:11, Figure 8). Such questions will be addressed using the Carlton Colville data and it is hoped that the as-yet unexcavated buildings in the eastern sector will provide further details of the course of development.
The evidence for the superstructure of grubenhäuser is only preserved in exceptional circumstances, as at West Stow (SFB 3 and 15). There is little relevant evidence from Carlton Colville, although the absence of daub might suggest timber superstructures. The grubenhaus (F 41) without post-holes might be some kind of ephemeral structure but the fact that the sides and the base showed little sign of erosion indicated that it must have been covered over. No evidence of internal structural features has been found within the grubenhaus pits, apart from a possible shallow pit/hollow within the base of F 41 which appeared to contain a large quantity of iron fragments and slag (suggested by initial inspection to relate to smithing). No hearths or trampled surfaces on the base of the pits were discovered, but soil micromorphological samples have been taken at throughout a number of grubenhaus fills to permit further, more detailed, excavation. No evidence of secondary use has been found within the pits.
Within the fill of grubenhaus F134 (an example of the six-post type) post-pipes were defined at the highest level of the infilling, indicating that in this case the base of the posts decayed in situ, remaining in place while the pit was filled after the abandonment of the building. Elsewhere on the site the evidence suggests that the posts were pulled out, presumably for reuse.
The artefact assemblages from the grubenhäuser will be vital for understanding the settlement sequence (variations in phase, status and/or function) and for this reason it is critical that the entire site is investigated. It is clear from other excavations that is impossible to draw inferences about overall settlement organisation unless the entire extent of the site is known.
The contents of the grubenhäuser pits offer a number of possibilities for detailed analysis. Although conditions have not favoured the preservation of animal bone, other artefacts, notable pottery (both early medieval and Roman), loom-weights and slag were found mixed together in the pits. Detailed quantification of the density of finds within different contexts (grubenhäus pits, midden heaps and pits) offers a number of analytical possibilities. The initial indications are that the assemblages are highly fragmented and that material may have been moved from the middens into the upper fills of the pits. Studies of fragmentation and refitting may be of considerable value here in indicating patterns of dispersal across the site. Further study may cast light on the formation of the deposits constituting the site. Initial indications are that the lower sandy fill represents rapid, wind-blown accumulation which was subsequently disturbed.
The grubenhäus pits may have acted as ready made rubbish pits and therefore the deposits within them may more generally reflect discard policy rather than localised site function. Such a suggestion requires careful investigation as some features, such as grubenhäus F 200, located to the north-east of the concentration of metal-working activity, has a very high density of slag in its fill, concentrated in the south-west side of the pit. Initial assumptions that this represented debris being disposed of in an open pit may have to be modified in the light of the preliminary analysis of the material which suggests that it might be the remains of in situ smithing activity (Starley, pers. comm.).
The evidence from Carlton Colville appears to support the suggestion that the grubenhäuser incorporated supported floors above the pits (West 1985) . The suggestion that the material found in the pits represents primary occupation deposits created by material falling through cracks in the floors is more contentious and must be re-evaluated. The Carlton Colville material should provide evidence to allow such a re-evaluation.
Clear evidence for midden deposits on settlements dating to the early - middle Anglo-Saxon period is still rare, although the middle Saxon sites of Flixborough and Brandon had extensive midden deposits, possibly indicative of changing disposal regimes, status and/or preservation during this period (Carr et al. 1988; Loveluck 1997). At Carlton Colville a discrete zone of middens has been defined within the excavated area, apparently bounding the northern edge of the settlement, away from most of the structures which seem to have been kept clean. The limits of the middens are defined by the elements of the earlier Roman field system enclosure boundaries. The lack of any other surface spreads/deposits, despite relatively good preservation might suggest a rigid, well-organised and well-maintained rubbish disposal regime. Preservation of the midden deposits is generally good, especially at the northern end of the site which has been protected by a build up of colluvium. This has ensured the survival of the midden spreads up to 30cm in depth. To date at least three concentrations have been defined, each apparently quite different in character. These appear to continue to the east of the current excavation, but seem to have ended before the edge of the settlement defined in Area II. At Brandon localised finds distributions also defined surface middens which were located away from buildings and were often adjacent to enclosure boundaries (Carr et al. 1988: 373). At Flixborough major phases of repeated refuse dumping occurred during which vast quantities of material were deposited. This material was characterised by a high degree of residuality, possibly the result of the levelling of the middens on the periphery of adjacent habitation foci (Loveluck 1997).
The middens at Carlton Colville have great potential, not only for the study of both animal and plant husbandry regimes, but also for contributing to our appreciation of disposal practices and depositional behaviour across the site. The presence of grubenhäuser, pits and surface middens at Carlton Colville is significant and contrasts with the evidence from many other sites, including Brandon and Flixborough. These sites lack the subsurface features which might have acted as ready-made receptacles for refuse dumping. Carlton Colville has such features, but they do not seem to have been utilised for that purpose.
An understanding of the processes responsible for the formation of the site is considered to be central to the interpretation of the settlement. The recognition that excavation recovers only a tiny proportion of what was originally present, either due to problems of preservation or because of disposal of rubbish (both on and off site), is crucial to the way in which the evidence is interpreted. We need to consider why so much material is ‘missing’ from the archaeological record and to examine the possibility that it was actively removed and disposed of away from the settlement. Although we have moved far from E. T. Leeds’ suggestion that the occupation of squalid hovels took place ‘amid a filthy litter of broken bones, of food and shattered pottery’ (Leeds 1968: 26), it would appear that the complexities of deposition and the mechanisms of rubbish disposal, which are crucial to interpreting both phasing and function within and around structures, are still underestimated. It is often assumed, for example, when the mechanisms of disposal are considered at all, that rubbish was directly deposited within open grubenhäus pits or filtered through the gaps in the raised floorboards. Such assumptions require questioning and it cannot be assumed that broken vessels were necessarily dumped in the nearest pit. The definition of temporary midden heaps is important as raises the possibility of alternative disposal regimes for the material, including deposition in middens and not necessarily directly into grubenhäus pits.
The suggestion that significant amounts of rubbish was used as manure is unsurprising in this period; the midden heaps may represent an intermediate stage in the disposal of rubbish prior to its removal to the fields. It is generally accepted that manuring was practised during the Roman period and it seems unlikely that there was a radical change in farming practice during the late Roman - early Saxon transitional period. Indeed it would appear that there was actually a more significant change and major discontinuity during the 7th century, after which there is evidence for specialised agricultural production (Wade 1997:50).
To date, a small number of post-hole buildings have been identified in the field, and it is highly likely that others will be defined during the post-excavation analysis of the records. It is also probable that further structures will be found to the east of the current site as post-holes have been noted in the 5m wide evaluation trench. The full definition of such buildings will require the extensive stripping of large areas. An alternative possibility is that such buildings will be found in a discrete zone away from the grubenhäuser, as at West Heslerton.
The structures identified consist of slight post-holes, perhaps indicative of tie-beam construction (Powlesland 1994). All the buildings identified to date are of types familiar from other sites (James et al. 1984) and are of single-beam construction. No buildings of double-post construction have yet been found. The plan of one complete post-in-trench building, a type of construction which is normally considered to be a middle Saxon form, has been defined and shown to cut an earlier grubenhäus (F 41). This building is comparable to those excavated at Brandon (R. Carr pers. comm.) and a middle Saxon date is supported by other evidence from the site (including a late 7th - early 8th century coin).
The metal-working area and associated assemblage overlies the cemetery and has produced a large and significant body of finds. Initial inspection indicates that the deposit consists entirely of smithing slag, with large quantities of hammer scale (David Starley pers. comm.). The ‘workshop’ appears to have been static, although at present its relationship to the remainder of the site is unclear. One of the grubenhäuser (F 200) also produced a rich deposit of slag and may also have been a smithy.
A large assemblage of iron objects were recovered from the site and the results of X-radiography are awaited. Crucible fragments and other evidence of non-ferrous working have also been recovered . Other distinct areas of craft activity have not, as yet, been defined within the excavated area, although large deposits of unfired loom-weights were found within grubenhäuser F130 and F134.
The site at Carlton Colville is unusual in including a considerable number of pits, normally a rare feature on Anglo-Saxon settlements. These constitute an important new data-set. A number of the pits appear to be close to the grubenhäuser and the closer definition of this relationship is a task of some importance. Investigation of the eastern area of the site to determine the spatial and chronological extent of this association is considered a priority.
Three oven bases, two of them in the eastern area, require further investigation to determine their function. At present it can only be noted that they do not appear to be directly associated with the metal-working deposits.
The objectives of the project can be summarised as follows:
Particular areas of interest include:
Priorities for further excavation include:
The excavation methods employed to be employed in the eastern area will be designed to complement the data obtained from the excavations carried out to date and will be informed by the results already obtained.
A series of principles will guide the excavation of the eastern area:
The stripping of the eastern sector has exposed the limits of the Saxon settlement. Although a major boundary division is apparent, the Roman field system continues eastwards beyond this area. Within this portion of the site twelve grubenhäuser have been exposed and require excavation. Of these six are arranged on a north-south axis along the eastern margin of Area V, a cluster of five are located to the northeast, between the main Roman droveway ditches and one outlier lies on the eastern edge of the excavation. There are no middens to the east of the main north-south axis and the density of ancillary features is generally low across the central portion of this area. In contrast, post-built structures are evident and these require further investigation. There are between eighty and one hundred pits which require excavation. Most of these are of small to medium size. At present there is no evidence of another cemetery or of further areas of industrial activity.
On the basis of spatial evidence alone the Saxon settlement does not appear to show a pattern of small hamlet-type shift, but appears to be arranged according to more a formal, larger-scale layout. This would seem to be supported by the general lack of evidence for the re-cutting of features and for the localised nature of the evidence for metal working.
The excavation strategy has two principal aims:
This will address three of the major aims of the project:
The grubenhäuser will be dealt with as follows:
The excavation of the pits will be determined by size. Pits of less than 2m diameter will be half sectioned. Those with a diameter exceeding 2m will subject to 50% sampling using opposing quadrants. The standard bulk sample (min. 15 litres) will be taken to provide a control on the recovery of small finds.
The remaining middens will be sampled by excavating 1m wide transects running north to south at 10m intervals along their length.
Burials, if present, will be individually planned and recorded.
Given the variation seen elsewhere on the site the sampling strategy will be subject to constant review and may be adjusted to suit the particular conditions encountered during the excavation.
A standard bulk sample of 15 litres will be taken from each feature. Further samples will be taken from appropriate contexts as necessary. Larger features may yield two or more samples, to be analysed as required. Pollen samples will be taken across the remainder of the site, continuing the policy initiated in the first stage of excavation.
The post-excavation assessment will evaluate the potential for further analysis of the various categories of data recovered from the site (i.e. contextual, artefactual and environmental), and will be integrated with an updated research design for subsequent post-excavation work and publication.
To date c. 300 features and 3000 contexts have been excavated within the original area of the site. The principal aim of the assessment will be to achieve a basic sorting of the contextual archive involving computer-tabulated summaries of the provisional stratigraphic and phasing information. This will form the basis for the preliminary analysis of the artefactual and environmental data as well as defining the potential for further work on issues of site chronology and layout and the function of the various structures.
Site chronology and layout
While a final phasing may not be possible in advance of the full analysis of the data from the site, a provisional chronology based on key stratigraphic relations and associated finds will be drawn up and the potential for detailed chronological analyses of feature types (e.g. grubenhäuser, pits, post-structures, middens) and spatial layout (e.g. shifting settlement foci) will be assessed. Certain areas of the site with the greatest range of inter-cutting features (and feature types) will be targeted in this assessment as offering the greatest potential for information concerning the chronological development of the site.
Form and function
An assessment of the structural features from the site will be conducted to determine the extent of any correlations between morphology and other criteria such as associated finds, nature of abandonment, spatial location and proximity to other features. This might then feed back into the broader issues of chronology and site layout as well as providing information concerning activity areas within the site.
A rapid overview suggests that the finds from the site total between 50 and 60,000 items. A more detailed breakdown from two of the Grubenhäuser so far processed provides some initial indication of the range and variation of material that can be expected.
|
Material |
F 19 No. |
F 19 Wt. (g) |
F 126 No. |
F 126 Wt. (g) |
|
BC |
385 |
619 |
24 |
85 |
|
BF |
15 |
117 |
16 |
96 |
|
BN |
1121 |
456 |
255 |
122 |
|
FL |
19 |
20 |
1 |
4 |
|
MT |
11 |
78 |
1 |
0 |
|
OT |
284 |
57 |
95 |
1101 |
|
PT |
75 |
923 |
147 |
527 |
|
SL |
61 |
507 |
47 |
223 |
|
ST |
12 |
175 |
1 |
6 |
|
TL |
0 |
0 |
2 |
55 |
|
WS |
0 |
0 |
1 |
60 |
|
Total |
1983 |
2952 |
590 |
2279 |
|
Key: BC - burnt clay BN - bone FL - flint MT - metal OT - other PT - pot SL - slag ST - stone TL - tile TP - tobacco pipe WS - worked stone | ||||
There is tremendous variation in the quantities of artefacts recovered from different features, even those of the same type. An assessment of all the types of artefactual data will provide information on broad issues of chronology and the economy as well as outlining the potential for further work on intra-site activity areas and processes of production, consumption and deposition. The level of assessment analysis which will be carried out on the different types of artefacts is summarised below:
Ceramics: a basic quantification by sherd count and weight; a provisional, quantified phasing of the assemblage; a description of the range of forms and fabrics in relation to existing regional type series; observations on the condition of the assemblage in order to consider problems of residuality. This information will be particularly critical to assessing the potential of the assemblage in answering questions of chronology.
Lithics: full quantification and basic characterisation of worked flint by count and burnt flint by weight, according to context.
Worked Stone: full quantification (by count and weight) according to context; basic characterisation of range of object types and raw material.
Burnt Clay: full quantification (by weight) according to context; basic characterisation (i.e. daub, artefact).
Metalwork: full quantification (by count) according to context; basic identification by object type and material.
Other (e.g. tile, clay pipe): full quantification (by count or weight as appropriate) according to context.
Conservation: Some of the iron objects have been X-rayed and those copper alloy pieces identified as vulnerable have been sent for immediate conservation. The unprecedented quantities of iron recovered precludes a complete programme of X-radiography during the pre-excavation stage. The intention is to include such a programme in the post-excavation analysis stage. All conservation and storage will be carried out in accordance with UKIC guidelines.
The environmental data recovered from the site falls into three main categories: animal bone, bulk samples (for charred plant remains, insects, molluscs and other preserved macrofossils) and column samples (for pollen). All types will contribute to a basic understanding of the contemporary environment and subsistence practices at the site. The level of assessment analysis which will be carried out will be as follows:
Animal Bone: quantification (by count and weight) of assemblage by context; basic species identification (quantified) where possible and description of the condition of the bone. This information will form the basis of assessing the potential for more detailed analyses on age and sex, as well as evidence for butchery practices etc.
Bulk samples: selected and representative samples will be processed and sorted to provide quantified summaries of the range of plant and other species present, giving an indication of the value of the botanical data recoverable from the site.
Column samples: selected profiles will be sub-sampled and processed, sorted and analysed for pollen species counts, giving an indication of the value of data recoverable from the columns.
Human Bone: full quantification with preliminary sexing and ageing and a description of the condition of the bone in terms of its potential for more refined ageing/sexing as well as observations on pathologies.
Andrews, P. 1995 Excavations at Redcastle Furze, Thetford 1988-9 East Anglian Archaeology Report 72
Boulter, S. 1995 Bloodmoor Hill Carlton Colville/Gisleham (CAC 013) Suffolk County Council Archaeological Service: Field Projects Division
Carr, R.D 1997 Brief and Specification for an archaeological excavation: Bloodmoor Hill, Carlton Colville Suffolk County Council Archaeological Service: Conservation Team
Carr, R.D., Tester, A. & Murphy P. 1988 The Middle-Saxon settlement at Staunch Meadow, Brandon Antiquity 62. 371-7.
Crabtree, P.J. 1990 West Stow. Early Anglo-Saxon animal husbandry. Suffolk County Planning Department: East Anglian Archaeology 47
Crabtree, P. 1994. Animal exploitation at East Anglian villages In: J. Rackham (Ed.) Environment and Economy in Anglo-Saxon England. Council for British Archaeology Research Report 89 40-54
Geake, H. 1997. The use of grave-goods in Conversion period England c.600 - c.850 B.A.R. British Series 261
Hamerow, H. 1993 Excavations at Mucking volume 2: the Anglo-Saxon settlement. English Heritage Report 21.
Hey, G. 1998 Yarnton and its landscape. Paper presented at a conference in Cambridge, Anglo-Saxon settlement: Recent work and new approaches.
James, S.T., Marshall, A. and Millett, M. 1984 An early medieval building tradition. Archaeological Journal 141, 182-215.
Leeds, E.T. 1968 Early Anglo-Saxon art and archaeology. Oxford, Clarendon (2nd Edition).
Loveluck, C. 1997 Flixborough - the character and economy of a high status Middle Saxon settlement in northern England. Paper presented at Medieval Europe Brugge 1997 Conference.
Newman, J. 1998 New light on old finds: Bloodmoor Hill, Gisleham, Suffolk In: D. Griffiths (ed.) Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 9
Powlesland, D.J. 1994 West Heslerton: The Anglian settlement: Assessment of potential for analysis. Unpublished report
Powlesland, D.J. forthcoming. The Anglo-Saxon settlement at West Heslerton.
Scull, C. 1992 Before Sutton Hoo: Structures of Power and Society in East Anglia In: M. Carver (ed.) The Age of Sutton Hoo 3-24
Shotliff, D. 1997 Three middle Saxon cemeteries from a rural settlement at Stratton, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire. Paper presented at a conference in Peterborough: Anglo-Saxon cemeteries and their contemporary context.
Tester, A. 1997 Hacheston/Scole: Dark Earths. Paper presented at a conference in Chelmsford: Roman lower order settlements in Eastern England
Wade, K. 1997 Anglo-Saxon and medieval rural. In: J. Glazebrook (ed.) Research and Archaeology: A Framework for the Eastern Counties 1: Resource Assessment EAA Occasional Papers 3
West, S.E 1985 West Stow: The Anglo-Saxon village. 2 volumes. Suffolk County Planning Department: East Anglian Archaeology 24.
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