A Late Saxon and early medieval site at Mill Lane, Thetford

The following sections address the interim results of the excavation, the potential of the data to contribute to the research aims (see above) and an outline of the proposals for further post-excavation analysis.

Stratigraphy

Results

A total of 1554 contexts were allocated during the excavation. 1489 of these have been assigned to a series of seven periods using pottery spot dates.

• Period 1 - Prehistoric
• Period 2 - Roman / early Saxon
• Period 3 - 10th - 11th centuries
• Period 4 - 11th - 12th centuries
• Period 5 - 12th - 14th centuries
• Period 6 - 15th - 17th centuries
• Period 7 - 18th - 20th centuries

Four buildings were recorded, and all were provisionally assigned to period 3. Two were sunken featured buildings and two were posthole structures. They were located within a compact area and did not appear to have been contemporary. Over 160 pits and 500 postholes were excavated. Thirty-five features were identified as being structural and fifty-five linear features appeared to represent land divisions and boundaries. The majority of these belonged to period 3, with a lesser number attributed to period 4, representing a rapid decline in occupation during the 12th century. Post-twelfth century features were concentrated in just two areas immediately to the east and west of Mill Lane and indicated that the site, apart from the road frontage, had been largely abandoned.

Potential

The examination of the four buildings will contribute to the overall appreciation of the nature of building and the development of building styles within Thetford. There is also the strong possibility that further detailed analysis of the stratigraphic evidence, in conjunction with the finds, will lead to the identification of additional post-built features. The fact that the structures were not contemporary raises questions concerning their lifespan and the precise sequence of construction and demolition. The functions of the buildings are unclear, but it is expected that analysis of the finds assemblages will be informative in this regard. Further questions concern the relationships between the buildings and the land divisions. Closer interrogation of the stratigraphic record and integration with the finds assemblages should give some indication of contemporaneity.

The distribution of wells, pits and other features across the site will also be considered in greater detail, with a view to identifying activities carried out on the site and the identification of possible zoning. Pits and postholes make up the majority of features dating to period 4 and spatial analysis will assist in the interpretation of the nature of the decline of the area. Comparisons between the land use during periods 3 and 4 will be used to examine the ways in which zoning changed over time and this will be extended into period 5. The documentary evidence suggests that the area was wholly abandoned by period 6, an observation which is supported by the archaeological evidence.

Proposals for post-excavation analysis

Six issues were identified in the assessment report as warranting further detailed investigation through the stratigraphic record in order to contribute to the overall project objectives.

• Confirmation of the stratigraphic relationship of the two pre-10th century contexts to the rest of the site.
• The development of the site in the Late Saxon period. Further detailed analysis of the stratigraphic records with a view to identifying occupation sequence, function, zoning and change, as outlined above. This will involve the refinement of the grouping and phasing of the stratigraphic record with reference to the pottery assemblage.
• Detailed examination of those contexts with evidence for metalworking to determine the location of features associated with specific activities as opposed to simple dumping of debris and waste products.
• Analysis of areas close to St. Ethelreda's church will indicate the extent (temporal and spatial) of settlement adjacent to the church.
• The study of the ninety-one contexts from period 5 is essential in order to understand the decline of the area. The features dated to periods 6 and 7 are of significance in that they relate to the evidence for activities along the street frontage into the 20th century
• A cursory examination of the twenty-four modern contexts from site 1022 should be made with a view to establishing the extent of their truncation of the earlier features and the possible presence of earlier material within them.

Pottery

Results

The excavations produced a total of 5767 sherds of pottery, weighing 76.345 kg, of which the overwhelming bulk was Late Saxon in date. Only 2.3% came from unstratified deposits. The virtual absence of Roman and Middle Saxon pottery (three sherds in total) and the absence of Early Saxon pottery suggests that the area was unoccupied during these periods. This contrasts markedly with other areas of Thetford, where these types of pottery are common.

Late Saxon pottery dominated the assemblage (92.7%), with the largest proportion (81.9%) being Thetford ware. 82.3% of the Thetford ware forms identified were from medium sized jars and cooking pots with smaller quantities of small and large jars. 6% of the assemblage was the regionally important St. Neots ware and 3% was Grimston-Thetford ware. A small quantity of Stamford ware represented a fineware component. These proportions conform to expectations based upon the assemblages from other sites in the town.

The Thetford ware assemblage was predominantly domestic with only a single crucible rim representing industrial vessels. In addition new three individual crucible fabrics were defined and provisionally identified as of Late Saxon date. Further analysis will be aimed at characterising the fabrics and determining their date.

Almost 4 kg of early medieval (11th to 12th century) pottery was recovered (5.2% of the assemblage). This included locally produced Early Medieval ware, Early Medieval Sandwich ware, and smaller quantities of Early Medieval Sparse Shelly ware, Yarmouth-type wares, Stamford ware and imported Pingsdorf ware. The Stamford ware included four crucible rims and these will be compared with the local crucible fabrics.

The decline of activity on the site is reflected in the pottery assemblage. Medieval wares accounted for only 1.5% of the pottery, the majority of this being Grimston Glazed wares with some regional imports, including Developed Stamford ware and Sible Hedenham-type ware. Continental imports were limited to Andenne-type ware.

Potential and proposals for further analysis

The further analysis of the pottery assemblage will provide an excellent opportunity to refine the dating of the Thetford ware, a task previously hampered by the absence of stratigraphic information. The combination of a large ceramic assemblage and recorded stratigraphy will allow established theories concerning typology and dating to be verified or replaced, as appropriate.

Analysis of the period 3 fabrics and forms and a study of the vessel population will be critical in defining the nature of the social, economic and industrial activities within the excavated area. Correlation of pottery groups with stratigraphic information regarding property boundaries and structures will provide a picture of the industrial and commercial complex as well as indicating the extent of the zoning of activities. This will also contribute the recognition of changes in pottery use over time and to the interpretation of the decline in the use of the site.

The industrial nature of some of the material will permit comparison with domestic groups to ascertain the extent of differences between them. This will involve the analysis of vessel form and fabric, particularly between the Thetford ware, Stamford ware and crucible fabrics. X-ray fluorescence will be employed to determine whether the crucibles had been used and the types of metal with which they were associated.

Analysis of the 12th century pottery will indicate the intensity and nature of the activities taking place at this time.

Brick and tile

Results

A total of fifty-five fragments of ceramic building material (2.65 kg) was recovered from stratified contexts. It was divided into three categories, roof tile, brick and floor tile, based on the type series established for Norwich.

Potential and proposals for further analysis

The small size of the group and its undistinguished nature offers little further scope for analysis. Those period 3 and 4 contexts in which it occurred may need re-examination to determine whether it represents an intrusive element or whether limited rephasing is necessary.

Fired Clay

Results

A total of 5.34 kg of fired clay was recovered, all but 0.60 kg from stratified contexts. The majority was featureless, only six artefacts being identifiable, three loom weights and three possible mould fragments. In addition two categories were identified as of particular interest, fragments with traces of wattling and fragments with metal deposits or residues.

Potential and proposals for further analysis

Spatial analysis of the deposits containing fired clay might be expected to contribute to structural and chronological interpretations.

Mould fragments, highly fired and vitrified fragments will be combined with other evidence of metalworking (described below) in order that the full range of metalworking activities on the site can be reconstructed. Similarly the loom weights will be considered in relation to other evidence for textile manufacture.

Unfired clay

A total of 778g of unfired clay was recovered from the site, much of it bearing wattle impressions. Relatively little in the way of further analysis is possible, although it will be considered in relation to evidence for the nature and location of the wattle and timber structures on the site.

Copper Alloy

Results

The copper alloy assemblage consisted of 256 objects. Ninety-three were found during excavation and a further 163 by a metal detector user during construction work on the site. The artefacts fall into three broad classes; personal ornaments, items related to animal husbandry and metalworking. The material includes Bronze Age and Romano-British material, although peaks in object loss occurred in the 10th, 13th / 14th and 18th centuries. Several of the Late Saxon objects are incomplete and may be scrap connected with the metalworking on the site. One cruciform brooch bore an inscription which requires further work.

Potential and proposals for further analysis

Further analysis of individual objects should improve the precision of the spot-dating and allow closer integration with other categories of evidence. The latter point is of particular importance in the context of the reassessment of the dating of the Thetford ware. The dating programme will be extended to include the post-Conquest contexts and will be developed to include the type and zonation of activities across the site. Detailed analysis will be limited to forty-two items found during the excavation and fifty-five found during subsequent construction works.

The Saxon items offer the opportunity to address questions of trade, the status of the settlement and, with reference to the scrap metal and an ingot, the nature of the metalworking on the site. The quantification of the later medieval and post-medieval finds will contribute to the assessment of the nature of activity up to and after the abandonment of St. Ethelreda's church.

Coins, jettons and tokens

Results

A total of thirty-seven coins and coin-like items were recovered of which five were Roman coins, twenty-three were English coins, three were tokens and thirty-seven were jettons. This substantial collection appears to reflect the type of occupation of this area of Thetford over a period of 1600 years. A number of the coins are of considerable individual importance, being rare items.

Potential and proposals for further analysis

The numismatic assemblage can be usefully compared with groups from other parts of Thetford and with other sites in the area. Compilation of a full coin list for this and other sites will enable the interpretation of the nature and intensity of the occupation of individual sites.

The stratified coins, although limited in number, will contribute to the chronological calibration of the Thetford ware pottery sequence.

Iron

Results

A total of 324 iron objects were included in the assessment. 41% of these came from deposits dated to period 3 and constitute a significant assemblage of Late Saxon ironwork. A similar percentage (42%) were recovered from the topsoil through the use of a metal detector. This group included surprisingly little post-medieval material and the presence of recognisable Late Saxon and early medieval objects suggested that the majority of the objects dated to the period of the most intense occupation. Initial examination suggested that the assemblage originated chiefly as a result of the disposal of domestic rubbish and smithing workshop debris. A wide range of functional categories were represented including craft tools (related to leather, bone and textile working), agricultural tools, transport-related items, domestic objects, structural fittings and dress accessories, including some prestigious items. This range of objects, together with the date, makes the assemblage one of greater than regional significance and this is further enhanced by the association with the evidence for metal working.

Potential and proposals for further analysis

Given the identification of a significant number of craft and agricultural tools amongst the ironwork assemblage, the immediate requirement is to compare this evidence of productive activities with comparable evidence from the animal bone and industrial debris in order to define and describe the range of activities on the site.

A comparison of the iron objects with the non-ferrous objects in terms of the range and quality of items will provide some index of the relative wealth and status of the occupants of the site in comparison with other parts of the town. As with other artefact categories, spatial analysis will indicate the extent of the zonation of activities across the site, while any imported objects will add to the information regarding the connections maintained by the inhabitants with other towns or regions.

The later material will add to the evidence for the continued use of the area around the church up to the time of its abandonment.

Lead and lead alloys

A total of 109 objects of lead and lead alloy were assessed, of which sixty-six represented lead working waste. Only 19% of the assemblage was stratified, but the group as a whole included Late Saxon brooches, weights and spindle whorls. When taken together with the other evidence for metalworking on the site, the material offers the opportunity to add to our knowledge and understanding of the Late Saxon metalworking industry. Spatial analysis will also assist in the definition of the zoning of activities and will contribute to the overall chronological framework for the site. The brooches, some of which survived in remarkable condition, may contribute to the analysis of social and economic status and links.

Metalworking debris

Results

A total of 94.5 kg of industrial debris was recovered from the site, including some microslags extracted from the sieved residues of the soil samples. In addition 2 kg of lead waste, a small crucible and a small quantity of copper alloy was identified as relating to the metalworking activity. Of this, half was examined closely at the assessment stage and the remainder scanned while in bags. Limited quantities of copper alloy and litharge cakes were examined in detail and three samples submitted for analysis by X-ray florescence (XRF).

The site was unusual in urban terms in that the evidence for smelting was more abundant than that of smithing. Amongst the slag two types, dense slag and fayalitic runs, were the commonest. Although the types of furnace were not determinable, the evidence clearly pointed towards smelting and primary smithing; the consolidation and shaping of bloomery iron.

Amongst the less common finds seven fragments of litharge cake attested to the refining of silver, an aspect of 'high status' metallurgy possibly connected with the minting of coins.

These two activities comprised a similar proportion of the total weight of material from periods 3 and 4. On the basis of the assessment there was no clear evidence for any substantial change in metalworking activities between the 10th and 12th centuries. Although the iron smelting debris showed considerable internal variation it was not possible to provide a clear interpretation of these changes.

Potential and proposals for further analysis

The full analysis of the assemblage will require the extension of the methods used in the assessment to the remainder of the material. A number of specific groups of material require further detailed work to resolve particular problems or to generate new data.

• The ironworking debris, notably the morphology of the different kinds of slag and the relationship between smelting and smithing.
• Lead, iron, copper alloy, fired clay and crucible fragments require XRF analysis.
• Unfinished objects and a selection of finished objects require XRF analysis in order to determine whether the finished objects form the site were manufactured there.
• Full integration of data from all material / functional categories in order to maximise the inference potential of the assemblage as a whole.

While much of the debris was recovered from secondary contexts, individual features such as possible hearths would benefit from careful cross-comparison linking the debris with the archaeological records in order to identify features with an industrial character.

As with other classes of material the spatial analysis of the finds is expected to contribute to the identification of activity areas and zones of concentration. Connected with this, the re-examination of the grouping and phasing of the individual features may allow greater precision in the understanding of the changes in metalworking practice during the occupation of the site. This will also permit the connections between metalworking and other activities to be better understood.

Glass

Seven fragments of glass were recovered, identified and, where possible, dated. Two of these, a possible stemmed glass and a finger ring, require further study both from the typological and dating points of view as well as the technical. One of the objects contained an unusually high concentration of lead, an occurrence recently noted in an object from London.

Stone objects

Six stone objects were recovered and were briefly examined during the assessment. These require further study in order to identify the type of stone and their possible provenances.

Lavastone

Results

A total of 160 pieces of lavastone and some smaller fragments were assessed. These appeared to be quern fragments and were generally assumed (given the weight of evidence from other sites in East Anglia) to be of Rhenish origin. Of the sixty-two contexts containing such fragments, forty belonged to period 3, sixteen to period 4 and six to undated contexts.

Potential and proposals for further analysis

The assemblage was unremarkable in the wider East Anglian context, trade across the North Sea being well documented. The spatial analysis of the objects across the site offers some potential to contribute to zoning studies and consideration in the context of the environmental data may indicate the types of processes being undertaken on the site.

Flint

A small assemblage of flint was recovered from the site, but was not relevant to the wider research questions being pursued. A catalogue was created for the site archive but no further work is anticipated.

Human bone

Three articulated skeletons and two disarticulated long bones were recovered during the excavations. These were recorded according to standard techniques during the assessment phase. No further work is anticipated on this material.

Worked animal bone and antler

Results.

Thirty-two objects of bone and antler and five fragments of antler waste were examined during the assessment phase. The assemblage consists mainly of Late Saxon or Anglo-Norman material, with only a single modern object. The commonest category is that representing textile manufacture and the objects included pin beaters, a needle and a spindle whorl. Other objects included horn and bone composite combs, skates and waste products. Two objects of particular interest are notable; a chess piece, the first to be found in Thetford, and a needle case, identified examples of which are almost exclusive to Thetford.

Potential and proposals for further analysis

The assemblage, which is comparable in its range with those from Ipswich and Norwich as well as from other sites in Thetford, appears to reflect the types of object found in Saxo-Norman households and may have only limited relevance to commercial activity. The evidence for weaving points to a household rather than commercial scale of operation and the waste from antler working is hardly indicative of workshop scale production. The majority of objects could have been made locally, the exception being the antler single sided composite comb which is both unusual and of fine craftsmanship. The exact provenance of this object is not easily determinable.

Animal bone

Results.

The hand-collected animal bone assemblage weighs a total of 169 kg. The groups from periods 3 and 4 are dominated by domestic animals with cattle predominant (in part an artefact of recovery bias). Horse bones, some butchered, are also relatively common together with chicken. Wild game and fish are rare in the hand collected assemblage, but the latter appear more common in the sieved material. Many of the sheep and cattle skulls featured chopped horn cores

Thirty percent (by weight) of the assemblage from period 3 and thirty-three percent from period 4 was selected for assessment. A number of sieved samples were scanned to assess the content and the amounts of identifiable bone. The results of the assessment suggest that there is sufficient information to usefully compare differences between periods 3 and 4, but probably insufficient to make statements about spatial variation across the site. The period 3 assemblage may also yield useful information about the size of animals, butchery and craft activities. It is unclear whether the groups will yield information suitable for drawing specific conclusions about the site, but they will contribute to a more general database concerning Late Saxon and early medieval sites in the area. In addition comparison with other assemblages from the town will permit comparison between this and other local sites.

Environmental data

Results.

A total of nineteen samples were taken from significant features across the site. Assessment of the material from the flotation process showed that several samples included charred cereals, weed seeds and other charred macrofossils capable of yielding information about crop processing activities on the site. Mollusc shells and charcoal were also present, the latter suggesting that information on fuel supply might be obtainable.

A single column sample was taken from the valley sediments close to the river. This contained plant macrofossils and insects. Such samples have hitherto been rare in Thetford as most excavations have taken place on dry, sandy sites with restricted preservation of biological remains.

Potential and proposals for further analysis.

The samples from the site offer evidence of crop processing activities and of fuel provision. The relative importance of heathland and woodland wood sources should be determinable.

The valley mire beside the site contained abundant, well preserved pollen which seemed to reflect the changing cultural landscape between the Iron Age and the Saxon period. This is of importance, not only to the understanding of the effects of the foundation of the adjacent settlement, but also because of the known Iron Age and Roman activity in the vicinity. The transition from the Roman to Saxon periods is of particular interest because the pollen evidence can be compared with that from plant macrofossils recovered from the site and may also provide data on the development of the Breckland cultural landscape.